1 00:00:34,940 --> 00:00:32,690 hello friends of astrobiology welcome to 2 00:00:37,549 --> 00:00:34,950 our brand new show on Signet ask an 3 00:00:40,100 --> 00:00:37,559 astrobiologist it replaces our previous 4 00:00:41,900 --> 00:00:40,110 show talked to an astrobiologist and the 5 00:00:43,610 --> 00:00:41,910 reason we're upgrading our form a little 6 00:00:46,040 --> 00:00:43,620 bit is we got new resources from the 7 00:00:48,410 --> 00:00:46,050 NASA Astrobiology program as well as 8 00:00:50,389 --> 00:00:48,420 Elsi the earth Life Science Institute at 9 00:00:51,979 --> 00:00:50,399 Tokyo Tech and the nonprofit blue Rubble 10 00:00:53,420 --> 00:00:51,989 space to make this a little bit more 11 00:00:55,279 --> 00:00:53,430 dynamic and hopefully a bit more 12 00:00:57,139 --> 00:00:55,289 interactive and informational for you 13 00:00:59,540 --> 00:00:57,149 all so if you have any questions during 14 00:01:02,599 --> 00:00:59,550 the the program make sure you use the 15 00:01:05,299 --> 00:01:02,609 hashtag ask Astro bio to post your 16 00:01:08,410 --> 00:01:05,309 questions online or use the Signet chat 17 00:01:11,960 --> 00:01:08,420 if you are on Sagan org so it's my great 18 00:01:15,140 --> 00:01:11,970 pleasure to invite back to say Gannett 19 00:01:17,300 --> 00:01:15,150 dr. Charles Cockell Charles is a 20 00:01:19,880 --> 00:01:17,310 professor of astrobiology one of the few 21 00:01:21,890 --> 00:01:19,890 in the world who holds this title the 22 00:01:24,469 --> 00:01:21,900 University of Edinburgh in Scotland he's 23 00:01:26,929 --> 00:01:24,479 also the director of the UK Centre for 24 00:01:28,880 --> 00:01:26,939 astrobiology and all-around baller 25 00:01:30,920 --> 00:01:28,890 astrobiologists if you have not taken 26 00:01:33,170 --> 00:01:30,930 his course on Coursera on an 27 00:01:36,170 --> 00:01:33,180 introduction to astrobiology I highly 28 00:01:40,580 --> 00:01:36,180 recommended Charles what are you wearing 29 00:01:44,300 --> 00:01:40,590 a mining suit and the last few hours 30 00:01:46,460 --> 00:01:44,310 one kilometer below this yes dear it's 31 00:01:48,139 --> 00:01:46,470 good to talk to again thank you and 32 00:01:51,260 --> 00:01:48,149 that's exactly where I've been actually 33 00:01:53,990 --> 00:01:51,270 by coincidence this interview was like 34 00:01:57,020 --> 00:01:54,000 20 minutes after I came up from our 35 00:01:58,819 --> 00:01:57,030 on-the-ground astrobiology lab in the 36 00:02:02,749 --> 00:01:58,829 boobie mine where we've been studying 37 00:02:06,109 --> 00:02:02,759 life are deep in in in 250 million year 38 00:02:07,880 --> 00:02:06,119 old Permian salt deposits so we've been 39 00:02:10,249 --> 00:02:07,890 down there today doing some science 40 00:02:11,960 --> 00:02:10,259 collecting microbes filming with the 41 00:02:13,910 --> 00:02:11,970 National Geographic and then I literally 42 00:02:15,890 --> 00:02:13,920 got up 20 minutes 43 00:02:19,400 --> 00:02:15,900 this interview so that's why I'm in a an 44 00:02:22,540 --> 00:02:19,410 orange mining suit so I'm not actually 45 00:02:26,479 --> 00:02:22,550 in print and I've just done online 46 00:02:28,790 --> 00:02:26,489 collecting some samples doing some doing 47 00:02:30,260 --> 00:02:28,800 some filming and working in our lab 48 00:02:32,690 --> 00:02:30,270 which I should say is actually the first 49 00:02:34,400 --> 00:02:32,700 was the first astrobiology labs we felt 50 00:02:37,699 --> 00:02:34,410 on the ground so it's nice I think 51 00:02:39,199 --> 00:02:37,709 facility you have that's so cool so the 52 00:02:40,970 --> 00:02:39,209 Permian is about two and fifty million 53 00:02:42,380 --> 00:02:40,980 years ago so let's go a bit before that 54 00:02:45,400 --> 00:02:42,390 and give you to tell us a little bit 55 00:02:48,860 --> 00:02:45,410 about your childhood so it's uh 200 to 56 00:02:52,520 --> 00:02:48,870 250 million year old salt deposits it's 57 00:02:54,740 --> 00:02:52,530 very old but but it's not as old say as 58 00:02:56,180 --> 00:02:54,750 the early Mars as early Mars but it is 59 00:02:58,850 --> 00:02:56,190 an environment where we can look at 60 00:03:00,949 --> 00:02:58,860 microbes living in salt environments and 61 00:03:02,330 --> 00:03:00,959 try to understand how they live in 62 00:03:05,000 --> 00:03:02,340 different types of brines 63 00:03:07,820 --> 00:03:05,010 so in the mind we've got sulphate brains 64 00:03:09,770 --> 00:03:07,830 we've got our sodium chloride brains all 65 00:03:11,120 --> 00:03:09,780 the sorts of salts that you see on Mars 66 00:03:13,370 --> 00:03:11,130 so it's a really interesting place to 67 00:03:15,199 --> 00:03:13,380 look at microbial communities and 68 00:03:17,150 --> 00:03:15,209 extreme briny environments and 69 00:03:18,680 --> 00:03:17,160 understand how they adapt to those 70 00:03:22,310 --> 00:03:18,690 extremes and it might tell us something 71 00:03:24,349 --> 00:03:22,320 about the spot of adaptations and 72 00:03:26,810 --> 00:03:24,359 functional capabilities of microbes 73 00:03:29,390 --> 00:03:26,820 living in briny environments on early 74 00:03:31,460 --> 00:03:29,400 Mars and brain is also really important 75 00:03:33,349 --> 00:03:31,470 for thinking about life on Europa but I 76 00:03:35,090 --> 00:03:33,359 want to go back a little bit before that 77 00:03:37,069 --> 00:03:35,100 because you're an astrobiologist today 78 00:03:38,360 --> 00:03:37,079 but when you when you were a kid when 79 00:03:40,190 --> 00:03:38,370 you were growing up I would like to 80 00:03:42,680 --> 00:03:40,200 learn a little bit more about what God 81 00:03:44,090 --> 00:03:42,690 what events made you become a scientist 82 00:03:45,740 --> 00:03:44,100 and how you ended up finding the 83 00:03:46,240 --> 00:03:45,750 astrobiology field and choosing that as 84 00:03:49,849 --> 00:03:46,250 a career 85 00:03:54,710 --> 00:03:49,859 okay well I'll try and keep free this is 86 00:03:56,390 --> 00:03:54,720 a large story I actually began well I 87 00:03:59,270 --> 00:03:56,400 was interested in Natural History from a 88 00:04:02,000 --> 00:03:59,280 very young age so I used to collect 89 00:04:04,280 --> 00:04:02,010 moths and insects and things and then I 90 00:04:07,759 --> 00:04:04,290 when I went to school I couldn't decide 91 00:04:09,890 --> 00:04:07,769 between biochemistry or astrophysics and 92 00:04:12,160 --> 00:04:09,900 I decided in the end to do biochemistry 93 00:04:15,170 --> 00:04:12,170 and that's what I did my first degree in 94 00:04:17,900 --> 00:04:15,180 then I got a fascinating a fascination 95 00:04:20,779 --> 00:04:17,910 in genetic engineering and did medical 96 00:04:22,940 --> 00:04:20,789 molecular biology for my PhD at Oxford 97 00:04:25,940 --> 00:04:22,950 so I actually studied the proteins 98 00:04:27,720 --> 00:04:25,950 involved in blood clotting but that 99 00:04:29,580 --> 00:04:27,730 didn't really satisfy me I 100 00:04:32,880 --> 00:04:29,590 interest in space exploration 101 00:04:36,150 --> 00:04:32,890 astrobiology so I spent one summer 102 00:04:39,330 --> 00:04:36,160 during my PhD at the International Space 103 00:04:41,250 --> 00:04:39,340 University where I met what would become 104 00:04:44,340 --> 00:04:41,260 future colleagues at NASA Ames Research 105 00:04:46,440 --> 00:04:44,350 Center and then I got a postdoctoral 106 00:04:49,410 --> 00:04:46,450 position at a National Research Council 107 00:04:51,120 --> 00:04:49,420 associate chip at NASA Ames and went out 108 00:04:53,580 --> 00:04:51,130 and did a postdoc and that's really when 109 00:04:57,180 --> 00:04:53,590 I became a sort of proper astrobiologist 110 00:04:59,940 --> 00:04:57,190 you like I spent 4 and a half years NASA 111 00:05:01,860 --> 00:04:59,950 and then I came back to the UK and 112 00:05:05,490 --> 00:05:01,870 worked with the British Antarctic Survey 113 00:05:07,830 --> 00:05:05,500 and then I spent four years working on 114 00:05:10,140 --> 00:05:07,840 Antarctic research and then I got my 115 00:05:11,070 --> 00:05:10,150 professorship in astrobiology at the 116 00:05:14,160 --> 00:05:11,080 Open University 117 00:05:16,020 --> 00:05:14,170 so my careers have taken different 118 00:05:18,690 --> 00:05:16,030 directions from biochemistry to 119 00:05:21,260 --> 00:05:18,700 molecular biology to astrobiology but 120 00:05:23,970 --> 00:05:21,270 all the time I've always tried to link 121 00:05:24,960 --> 00:05:23,980 biology with space exploration and 122 00:05:27,090 --> 00:05:24,970 that's always the thing that's 123 00:05:29,370 --> 00:05:27,100 fascinated me and now I find myself as a 124 00:05:32,190 --> 00:05:29,380 professor of astrobiology doing it 125 00:05:37,500 --> 00:05:32,200 full-time been my childhood dream of a 126 00:05:41,160 --> 00:05:37,510 job so I'm very lucky I think space but 127 00:05:43,980 --> 00:05:41,170 yet spend a day one kilometer below the 128 00:05:45,870 --> 00:05:43,990 Earth's surface which is pretty awesome 129 00:05:48,000 --> 00:05:45,880 so but the path you've taken I'm sure 130 00:05:49,350 --> 00:05:48,010 was not a straightforward one I was 131 00:05:50,880 --> 00:05:49,360 wondering if you could tell us a little 132 00:05:53,280 --> 00:05:50,890 bit about like the hurdles you 133 00:05:54,630 --> 00:05:53,290 encountered and the mentors you met who 134 00:05:56,730 --> 00:05:54,640 kind of helped you along the way to 135 00:05:59,520 --> 00:05:56,740 become the amazing scientist you are 136 00:06:01,410 --> 00:05:59,530 today well I'll defer on the amazing 137 00:06:03,360 --> 00:06:01,420 scientist I mean it's rather people to 138 00:06:07,640 --> 00:06:03,370 make a judgement but I can tell you 139 00:06:09,660 --> 00:06:07,650 about the hurdles I to get where I am um 140 00:06:11,580 --> 00:06:09,670 you know one of the most difficult 141 00:06:13,380 --> 00:06:11,590 things I think is is funding and 142 00:06:15,510 --> 00:06:13,390 building a career people see you as a 143 00:06:17,400 --> 00:06:15,520 professor and they think are you know he 144 00:06:19,650 --> 00:06:17,410 must have had an easy time or got there 145 00:06:22,050 --> 00:06:19,660 easily you know I went out to NASA and 146 00:06:24,270 --> 00:06:22,060 then ran out of money and I had to go 147 00:06:26,040 --> 00:06:24,280 and scrounge for money for eight months 148 00:06:28,140 --> 00:06:26,050 from Stanford and then I ran out of 149 00:06:30,390 --> 00:06:28,150 money there and went out to the 150 00:06:32,550 --> 00:06:30,400 University of Arizona where I then ran 151 00:06:35,130 --> 00:06:32,560 out of money there and then I went back 152 00:06:36,810 --> 00:06:35,140 up to Ames and ran out of money there 153 00:06:39,240 --> 00:06:36,820 and then went to the British Antarctic 154 00:06:41,999 --> 00:06:39,250 Survey for two years but I first came 155 00:06:43,679 --> 00:06:42,009 back to the UK to do research here 156 00:06:46,350 --> 00:06:43,689 and then I ran out of money after two 157 00:06:49,499 --> 00:06:46,360 years it's not an easy thing and it's 158 00:06:51,420 --> 00:06:49,509 taken a lot of sort of times of 159 00:06:54,059 --> 00:06:51,430 difficulty and uncertainty with research 160 00:06:55,799 --> 00:06:54,069 positions and and that's not to depress 161 00:06:58,230 --> 00:06:55,809 people it's more to give people hope 162 00:06:59,999 --> 00:06:58,240 that you just have to keep going and be 163 00:07:01,859 --> 00:07:00,009 persistent it's not actually easy for 164 00:07:04,049 --> 00:07:01,869 anyone developing a career in science 165 00:07:06,420 --> 00:07:04,059 but if you believe strongly enough in 166 00:07:08,519 --> 00:07:06,430 what you're doing and keep going things 167 00:07:11,459 --> 00:07:08,529 tend to work themselves out but you know 168 00:07:12,029 --> 00:07:11,469 it just takes it takes focus and a lot 169 00:07:16,529 --> 00:07:12,039 of work 170 00:07:19,920 --> 00:07:16,539 mark by step you write papers you know I 171 00:07:22,619 --> 00:07:19,930 know it sounds like a simple piece of 172 00:07:24,290 --> 00:07:22,629 advice but but being productive is is 173 00:07:26,519 --> 00:07:24,300 one of the most important things for 174 00:07:28,589 --> 00:07:26,529 achieving a permanent position and 175 00:07:30,689 --> 00:07:28,599 getting a job at a university as long as 176 00:07:33,059 --> 00:07:30,699 you are productive you demonstrate that 177 00:07:34,709 --> 00:07:33,069 as a scientist you can get information 178 00:07:34,949 --> 00:07:34,719 out there so I think that's an important 179 00:07:37,860 --> 00:07:34,959 thing 180 00:07:39,689 --> 00:07:37,870 persistence being enthusiastic believing 181 00:07:41,519 --> 00:07:39,699 in the dream that you're pursuing for 182 00:07:43,199 --> 00:07:41,529 the same time also getting those papers 183 00:07:47,070 --> 00:07:43,209 written and being productive and you can 184 00:07:49,139 --> 00:07:47,080 really beat that combination things hi I 185 00:07:50,639 --> 00:07:49,149 echo those sentiments and I agree it's 186 00:07:53,549 --> 00:07:50,649 definitely as a personal scientist 187 00:07:55,709 --> 00:07:53,559 myself I definitely appreciate the 188 00:07:57,570 --> 00:07:55,719 challenges of obtaining money to do 189 00:07:59,519 --> 00:07:57,580 science could you tell us a little bit 190 00:08:02,279 --> 00:07:59,529 about the mentors you've had a 191 00:08:04,889 --> 00:08:02,289 throughout your career and the advice of 192 00:08:07,980 --> 00:08:04,899 wise people you've you've taken and that 193 00:08:10,529 --> 00:08:07,990 have helped you guide your career yeah I 194 00:08:13,320 --> 00:08:10,539 mean I've had a lot of I've been lucky a 195 00:08:16,379 --> 00:08:13,330 lot of people helped me out you know 196 00:08:18,509 --> 00:08:16,389 people at Ames Chris McKay 197 00:08:21,239 --> 00:08:18,519 Lynn Rothschild others who supported my 198 00:08:24,029 --> 00:08:21,249 career when I became an astro bar that 199 00:08:25,409 --> 00:08:24,039 led support um this wouldn't have 200 00:08:27,420 --> 00:08:25,419 happened I should also say not just 201 00:08:29,219 --> 00:08:27,430 mentors but colleagues as well people 202 00:08:32,389 --> 00:08:29,229 I've worked with it everything's when I 203 00:08:35,069 --> 00:08:32,399 was a postdoc fellow scientists who were 204 00:08:38,309 --> 00:08:35,079 supportive as well I had a lot of 205 00:08:40,379 --> 00:08:38,319 support from from senior people Barry 206 00:08:42,329 --> 00:08:40,389 Bloomberg who was the first director at 207 00:08:44,790 --> 00:08:42,339 the NASA Astrobiology Institute and 208 00:08:47,220 --> 00:08:44,800 Nobel Prize winner you know wrote me 209 00:08:50,759 --> 00:08:47,230 letters of support for my jobs after I 210 00:08:53,100 --> 00:08:50,769 finished it at NASA and you know it's 211 00:08:54,120 --> 00:08:53,110 not necessary but it doesn't help it 212 00:08:57,200 --> 00:08:54,130 doesn't hurt rather 213 00:08:59,880 --> 00:08:57,210 to have Nobel Prize winners writing 214 00:09:01,200 --> 00:08:59,890 reference letters for jobs but you know 215 00:09:03,300 --> 00:09:01,210 people listening shouldn't think you 216 00:09:05,880 --> 00:09:03,310 need that but but I guess it is an 217 00:09:08,640 --> 00:09:05,890 illustration that it is important to to 218 00:09:10,260 --> 00:09:08,650 you know to work with senior people and 219 00:09:13,130 --> 00:09:10,270 be positive towards your seniors 220 00:09:16,260 --> 00:09:13,140 whatever wherever they might tell you 221 00:09:18,270 --> 00:09:16,270 and that's certainly part of part of the 222 00:09:19,680 --> 00:09:18,280 help that you need to develop a job so 223 00:09:21,420 --> 00:09:19,690 I've been lucky a lot of people have 224 00:09:23,400 --> 00:09:21,430 been very supportive of what I wanted to 225 00:09:26,250 --> 00:09:23,410 do in life and have supported me at 226 00:09:28,410 --> 00:09:26,260 critical times so you know a little 227 00:09:30,360 --> 00:09:28,420 hesitation in saying that that the 228 00:09:33,240 --> 00:09:30,370 papers and the dream and the vision is 229 00:09:35,580 --> 00:09:33,250 important but it is also important to 230 00:09:38,790 --> 00:09:35,590 try and get to know people who can help 231 00:09:40,230 --> 00:09:38,800 you out at critical times yeah I don't 232 00:09:41,730 --> 00:09:40,240 think it's luck Charles I mean you're 233 00:09:43,680 --> 00:09:41,740 very good at communicating your 234 00:09:45,540 --> 00:09:43,690 enthusiasm and it's pretty contagious to 235 00:09:48,810 --> 00:09:45,550 the people around you so give yourself 236 00:09:50,160 --> 00:09:48,820 some credit there yeah I mean that's 237 00:09:52,080 --> 00:09:50,170 hard work there's no you don't get 238 00:09:53,550 --> 00:09:52,090 anything for free in life and it looked 239 00:09:55,410 --> 00:09:53,560 it can always look like to other people 240 00:09:58,290 --> 00:09:55,420 you've been lucky and very little of it 241 00:10:00,660 --> 00:09:58,300 is luck it's hard work and and yeah 242 00:10:02,520 --> 00:10:00,670 persistence but the good news is we live 243 00:10:04,610 --> 00:10:02,530 in a world these days where persistence 244 00:10:07,320 --> 00:10:04,620 and hard work does actually pay off I 245 00:10:09,240 --> 00:10:07,330 think in you know a few centuries ago it 246 00:10:11,460 --> 00:10:09,250 was much more about who you knew and 247 00:10:13,020 --> 00:10:11,470 there was a lot of luck and that's a 248 00:10:14,660 --> 00:10:13,030 good thing that if you believe in what 249 00:10:16,260 --> 00:10:14,670 you're doing and people want to be 250 00:10:18,780 --> 00:10:16,270 astrobiologists if you show that 251 00:10:20,550 --> 00:10:18,790 persistence you have a high chance of of 252 00:10:24,410 --> 00:10:20,560 getting what you want so you have to 253 00:10:26,730 --> 00:10:24,420 keep pushing on that's excellent advice 254 00:10:28,620 --> 00:10:26,740 one thing I really like about your child 255 00:10:30,360 --> 00:10:28,630 is you're very bold scientist then you 256 00:10:32,100 --> 00:10:30,370 do the experiments you carry out are 257 00:10:33,120 --> 00:10:32,110 just really awesome and I was wondering 258 00:10:34,680 --> 00:10:33,130 if you could tell us a little bit about 259 00:10:38,910 --> 00:10:34,690 the experiments you actually flew into 260 00:10:40,890 --> 00:10:38,920 space yeah so we have we have done space 261 00:10:42,810 --> 00:10:40,900 experiments to international space 262 00:10:45,450 --> 00:10:42,820 station I really want to go to the Moon 263 00:10:47,070 --> 00:10:45,460 and Mars so I should this is really just 264 00:10:49,050 --> 00:10:47,080 the first step but I'm not going to 265 00:10:52,380 --> 00:10:49,060 complain anyway but we've been lucky 266 00:10:54,210 --> 00:10:52,390 we've had um European Space Station 267 00:10:55,860 --> 00:10:54,220 experiments where Space Agency 268 00:10:58,440 --> 00:10:55,870 experiments are one of which was quite 269 00:11:00,930 --> 00:10:58,450 fun we took some rocks from a former 270 00:11:03,930 --> 00:11:00,940 cliff in the South of England in a place 271 00:11:06,240 --> 00:11:03,940 called Devon a fishing village took the 272 00:11:07,980 --> 00:11:06,250 rocks and we flew them on the outside of 273 00:11:10,410 --> 00:11:07,990 the International Space Station for you 274 00:11:13,949 --> 00:11:10,420 know how to ask a very simple science 275 00:11:15,449 --> 00:11:13,959 experiment which was um science question 276 00:11:18,690 --> 00:11:15,459 which was to ask did any microbes 277 00:11:20,970 --> 00:11:18,700 survive and and that year-and-a-half in 278 00:11:23,100 --> 00:11:20,980 space and one species survived and we 279 00:11:25,320 --> 00:11:23,110 have that growing in our lab now and 280 00:11:27,360 --> 00:11:25,330 we're trying to understand how it 281 00:11:30,120 --> 00:11:27,370 survived in space and two of the answers 282 00:11:32,310 --> 00:11:30,130 are that it forms biofilms and that it's 283 00:11:34,170 --> 00:11:32,320 also very resistant to ionizing 284 00:11:36,769 --> 00:11:34,180 radiation that was really the first 285 00:11:38,639 --> 00:11:36,779 experiment that I did on Space Station 286 00:11:40,320 --> 00:11:38,649 currently we're preparing another 287 00:11:43,320 --> 00:11:40,330 experiment that's going to fly in two 288 00:11:46,650 --> 00:11:43,330 years which I'm PIR called by a rock and 289 00:11:49,620 --> 00:11:46,660 it's to look at how microbes break down 290 00:11:52,470 --> 00:11:49,630 rocks in microgravity and simulated 291 00:11:54,570 --> 00:11:52,480 Martian gravity using cubic centrifuge 292 00:11:57,690 --> 00:11:54,580 on the space station and this is all 293 00:12:00,240 --> 00:11:57,700 about growing biofilms in regolith on 294 00:12:03,150 --> 00:12:00,250 Mars and on the moon and whether we can 295 00:12:05,550 --> 00:12:03,160 use microbes to break down rocks produce 296 00:12:07,860 --> 00:12:05,560 soils and maybe even do things like bio 297 00:12:10,410 --> 00:12:07,870 mining so extracting useful elements 298 00:12:12,480 --> 00:12:10,420 from rocks like iron entertaining and 299 00:12:14,910 --> 00:12:12,490 precious metals like platinum from 300 00:12:15,810 --> 00:12:14,920 asteroids and use microbes to do this 301 00:12:17,610 --> 00:12:15,820 work for us 302 00:12:20,130 --> 00:12:17,620 just as microbes are used on the earth 303 00:12:23,100 --> 00:12:20,140 to do bio mining so this is a really 304 00:12:25,260 --> 00:12:23,110 exciting experiment it's leading to a 305 00:12:26,940 --> 00:12:25,270 new generation of microbial growth 306 00:12:29,130 --> 00:12:26,950 reactors that we're building with Kaiser 307 00:12:31,170 --> 00:12:29,140 space who are our industrial 308 00:12:32,550 --> 00:12:31,180 collaborators and what we hope to do in 309 00:12:35,460 --> 00:12:32,560 the next three or four years is build 310 00:12:38,100 --> 00:12:35,470 tiny little cubic our microbial growth 311 00:12:40,500 --> 00:12:38,110 chambers you can file CubeSat on space 312 00:12:43,319 --> 00:12:40,510 stations or send to the moon in which 313 00:12:45,569 --> 00:12:43,329 you can do microbial growth experiments 314 00:12:48,690 --> 00:12:45,579 microbial culture experiments so these 315 00:12:50,400 --> 00:12:48,700 are little modularized culture chambers 316 00:12:52,079 --> 00:12:50,410 if you like that you can use in space so 317 00:12:55,500 --> 00:12:52,089 that's another one of our sort of 318 00:12:57,449 --> 00:12:55,510 exciting space experiments so with those 319 00:12:59,160 --> 00:12:57,459 microbes that do bio mining I think 320 00:13:01,319 --> 00:12:59,170 that's really interesting because I mean 321 00:13:03,150 --> 00:13:01,329 one of the big push on from the private 322 00:13:05,340 --> 00:13:03,160 industry these days is to do asteroid 323 00:13:07,410 --> 00:13:05,350 mining but is the kinetics of the 324 00:13:09,150 --> 00:13:07,420 microbe break down fast enough is it 325 00:13:11,130 --> 00:13:09,160 scalable it seems like it would be good 326 00:13:14,670 --> 00:13:11,140 for a small project but on the larger 327 00:13:16,079 --> 00:13:14,680 scale I'm about 20 percent or so of all 328 00:13:18,300 --> 00:13:16,089 the copper on the earth today is 329 00:13:20,310 --> 00:13:18,310 extracted from rocks using bio mining so 330 00:13:21,430 --> 00:13:20,320 this is not um this is not speculation 331 00:13:23,230 --> 00:13:21,440 this is a matter 332 00:13:26,560 --> 00:13:23,240 the economic Enterprise on the earth and 333 00:13:28,620 --> 00:13:26,570 yes Oh microbes accelerate that you can 334 00:13:30,880 --> 00:13:28,630 think of them simply as catalysts for 335 00:13:33,310 --> 00:13:30,890 accelerating say the oxidation of iron 336 00:13:35,620 --> 00:13:33,320 or sulfur into sulfuric acid and 337 00:13:38,890 --> 00:13:35,630 acidifying the rock environment to break 338 00:13:41,440 --> 00:13:38,900 down Ross so microbes can catalyze 339 00:13:43,750 --> 00:13:41,450 chemical reactions orders of magnitude 340 00:13:45,940 --> 00:13:43,760 sometimes up to a million times faster 341 00:13:48,130 --> 00:13:45,950 than just purely chemical reactions and 342 00:13:50,470 --> 00:13:48,140 that general ability of microbes to 343 00:13:52,630 --> 00:13:50,480 catalyze reactions is at the heart of 344 00:13:54,190 --> 00:13:52,640 bio mining whether that's are 345 00:13:57,280 --> 00:13:54,200 specifically extracting particular 346 00:13:59,140 --> 00:13:57,290 metals from rocks or just using microbes 347 00:14:02,700 --> 00:13:59,150 to help break down the silicate matrix 348 00:14:05,530 --> 00:14:02,710 of rocks and release economically useful 349 00:14:07,840 --> 00:14:05,540 elements so yes microbes can do this on 350 00:14:11,320 --> 00:14:07,850 a big scale how you would do that on an 351 00:14:13,180 --> 00:14:11,330 asteroid or on on the Moon or Mars when 352 00:14:15,010 --> 00:14:13,190 on the earth these microbes generally do 353 00:14:17,230 --> 00:14:15,020 this in aerobic environments but they've 354 00:14:18,970 --> 00:14:17,240 got plenty of oxygen so you'd have to 355 00:14:21,490 --> 00:14:18,980 get the oxygen and that's an energy and 356 00:14:24,880 --> 00:14:21,500 mass cost to do all that so scaling up 357 00:14:27,100 --> 00:14:24,890 by mining to to extraterrestrial 358 00:14:28,690 --> 00:14:27,110 environments is at the moment something 359 00:14:30,640 --> 00:14:28,700 we you know we don't fully understand 360 00:14:32,230 --> 00:14:30,650 whether it would be economically 361 00:14:34,390 --> 00:14:32,240 scaleable I think that's yet to be 362 00:14:37,450 --> 00:14:34,400 demonstrated but it is just one of the 363 00:14:39,850 --> 00:14:37,460 ways in which we could um use use 364 00:14:42,670 --> 00:14:39,860 microbes that use organisms to do things 365 00:14:45,520 --> 00:14:42,680 for us in space that might improve our 366 00:14:49,210 --> 00:14:45,530 ability to get access to resources or 367 00:14:53,200 --> 00:14:49,220 ameliorate soils or even do things like 368 00:14:54,640 --> 00:14:53,210 use microbes for extraterrestrial 369 00:14:57,670 --> 00:14:54,650 gardening something as trivial as 370 00:15:00,550 --> 00:14:57,680 growing plants and microbial mats in in 371 00:15:03,250 --> 00:15:00,560 stations on on Moon and Mars micro yet 372 00:15:04,780 --> 00:15:03,260 why if we were to think about the long 373 00:15:06,670 --> 00:15:04,790 term human space flight we'll definitely 374 00:15:08,200 --> 00:15:06,680 need to have an understanding of how 375 00:15:10,720 --> 00:15:08,210 microbes work in the space environment 376 00:15:12,520 --> 00:15:10,730 so it's kind of cool that you know this 377 00:15:15,250 --> 00:15:12,530 is like one of many examples of 378 00:15:17,050 --> 00:15:15,260 practical astrobiology and and if you 379 00:15:18,700 --> 00:15:17,060 can't talk about geology without talking 380 00:15:22,060 --> 00:15:18,710 about biology and vice-versa so it's 381 00:15:24,160 --> 00:15:22,070 very very exciting field you're you're 382 00:15:25,900 --> 00:15:24,170 also conducting if I remember right one 383 00:15:27,550 --> 00:15:25,910 of the longest-running 384 00:15:28,960 --> 00:15:27,560 astrobiology experiments right you 385 00:15:30,550 --> 00:15:28,970 started something and experiments gonna 386 00:15:34,390 --> 00:15:30,560 last like five hundred years or 387 00:15:35,350 --> 00:15:34,400 something yes yeah sure I was having a 388 00:15:37,420 --> 00:15:35,360 conversation with so 389 00:15:39,730 --> 00:15:37,430 my students in my lab and we were saying 390 00:15:42,400 --> 00:15:39,740 you what is the mathematical function 391 00:15:44,620 --> 00:15:42,410 that describes the loss of viability in 392 00:15:47,949 --> 00:15:44,630 a dessicated microbe whether that's a 393 00:15:50,949 --> 00:15:47,959 microbe that are dried on the surface of 394 00:15:53,139 --> 00:15:50,959 Mars or a microbe in permafrost on earth 395 00:15:55,569 --> 00:15:53,149 what is it that kill the microbes over a 396 00:15:57,550 --> 00:15:55,579 long time period is it that is it 397 00:15:59,620 --> 00:15:57,560 accumulated DNA damage or is it just 398 00:16:02,380 --> 00:15:59,630 damage to the cell membrane over a short 399 00:16:04,150 --> 00:16:02,390 period of time and we looked around and 400 00:16:07,300 --> 00:16:04,160 of course we found papers where people 401 00:16:09,519 --> 00:16:07,310 had looked at survival of desiccation of 402 00:16:11,319 --> 00:16:09,529 microbes so there's a paper about gnaw 403 00:16:13,360 --> 00:16:11,329 stop which is a sign of bacterium 404 00:16:16,150 --> 00:16:13,370 surviving for over a hundred years 405 00:16:18,150 --> 00:16:16,160 that was some herbarium specimens that 406 00:16:20,470 --> 00:16:18,160 people who got out of our botanical 407 00:16:22,630 --> 00:16:20,480 collection but all these papers are 408 00:16:24,940 --> 00:16:22,640 quite haphazard there there's samples 409 00:16:27,610 --> 00:16:24,950 that people are found in museums or or 410 00:16:29,530 --> 00:16:27,620 in other places and we thought well then 411 00:16:31,900 --> 00:16:29,540 we do the experiment properly and set up 412 00:16:33,160 --> 00:16:31,910 a 500-year microbiology experiment so 413 00:16:36,250 --> 00:16:33,170 that's what we've done what we've done 414 00:16:38,019 --> 00:16:36,260 is we've we seal that critically Oxus 415 00:16:40,569 --> 00:16:38,029 which is a desiccation resistant sila 416 00:16:42,610 --> 00:16:40,579 bacterium and spores of bacillus 417 00:16:45,370 --> 00:16:42,620 subtlest so we've got a vegetative in a 418 00:16:47,590 --> 00:16:45,380 spore forming microbe we seal them in 419 00:16:50,650 --> 00:16:47,600 glass vials so what will happen is we 420 00:16:52,810 --> 00:16:50,660 take a triplicate vial every two years 421 00:16:54,340 --> 00:16:52,820 for the next twenty five years and then 422 00:16:56,470 --> 00:16:54,350 every twenty five years for the next 423 00:16:58,810 --> 00:16:56,480 four hundred and seventy-five years and 424 00:17:02,590 --> 00:16:58,820 the experiment ends on June the 30th 25 425 00:17:04,870 --> 00:17:02,600 14 and we've got um we've got in the 426 00:17:07,240 --> 00:17:04,880 experimental box we've got vials that 427 00:17:09,159 --> 00:17:07,250 are just exposed to the environment you 428 00:17:11,230 --> 00:17:09,169 know that are just in the box and then 429 00:17:12,850 --> 00:17:11,240 we also have vials inside a leadbox to 430 00:17:15,069 --> 00:17:12,860 cut down some of the background 431 00:17:17,740 --> 00:17:15,079 radiation to test the hypothesis that 432 00:17:19,809 --> 00:17:17,750 background radiation is one factor in 433 00:17:22,299 --> 00:17:19,819 loss of viability and then the entire 434 00:17:24,100 --> 00:17:22,309 experiment is reproduced so one of these 435 00:17:26,350 --> 00:17:24,110 experiments is in Edinburgh and we have 436 00:17:28,360 --> 00:17:26,360 a complete replicate 500-year experiment 437 00:17:30,430 --> 00:17:28,370 that's being curated by the Natural 438 00:17:32,440 --> 00:17:30,440 History Museum in London to ensure 439 00:17:34,480 --> 00:17:32,450 there's redundancy but it also means we 440 00:17:36,720 --> 00:17:34,490 get two datasets from two different 441 00:17:39,070 --> 00:17:36,730 environments so we've got biological 442 00:17:40,900 --> 00:17:39,080 triplicates in each experiment and then 443 00:17:43,570 --> 00:17:40,910 the final experiment is technically 444 00:17:45,669 --> 00:17:43,580 replicated in two institutes and we took 445 00:17:48,100 --> 00:17:45,679 the first our time point this year so 446 00:17:49,030 --> 00:17:48,110 the experiment began two years ago July 447 00:17:50,770 --> 00:17:49,040 this year with 448 00:17:53,290 --> 00:17:50,780 point one which was a matter of great 449 00:17:55,350 --> 00:17:53,300 excitement in my lab and I can tell you 450 00:17:58,480 --> 00:17:55,360 now that neither organism are 451 00:18:01,360 --> 00:17:58,490 significantly lost any viability in both 452 00:18:03,040 --> 00:18:01,370 the exposed and in the lead boxes that's 453 00:18:04,780 --> 00:18:03,050 good news for a number of reasons not 454 00:18:07,480 --> 00:18:04,790 because it tells us much we know that 455 00:18:09,130 --> 00:18:07,490 spores will survive two years that's a 456 00:18:10,390 --> 00:18:09,140 short time period we know that 457 00:18:12,490 --> 00:18:10,400 critically opposites will survive for 458 00:18:14,680 --> 00:18:12,500 two years but what it has shown us is 459 00:18:16,270 --> 00:18:14,690 that the preservation mechanisms that 460 00:18:17,950 --> 00:18:16,280 the preservation method that we use for 461 00:18:20,290 --> 00:18:17,960 the microbes has worked and so we have 462 00:18:22,300 --> 00:18:20,300 an experiment now after two years 463 00:18:24,250 --> 00:18:22,310 there's no loss of viability so now the 464 00:18:27,580 --> 00:18:24,260 question is what will happen over the 465 00:18:30,340 --> 00:18:27,590 net will we see a sudden crash in 466 00:18:33,460 --> 00:18:30,350 viability maybe over the next few years 467 00:18:36,820 --> 00:18:33,470 as those organisms die or will we see a 468 00:18:38,590 --> 00:18:36,830 crash in viability saying 150 years when 469 00:18:41,680 --> 00:18:38,600 there's a certain accumulated level of 470 00:18:44,680 --> 00:18:41,690 of DNA damage and what is the difference 471 00:18:46,990 --> 00:18:44,690 between a vegetative cell and a spore 472 00:18:48,880 --> 00:18:47,000 forming cell and then even if the cells 473 00:18:49,540 --> 00:18:48,890 die let's say in a hundred years they're 474 00:18:51,820 --> 00:18:49,550 all dead 475 00:18:54,100 --> 00:18:51,830 we can still follow the destruction of 476 00:18:55,930 --> 00:18:54,110 biosignatures over 500 years what 477 00:18:58,690 --> 00:18:55,940 happens to the membranes in the DNA 478 00:19:00,130 --> 00:18:58,700 nucleic acids or proteins so this 479 00:19:02,220 --> 00:19:00,140 experiment provides us with an 480 00:19:05,470 --> 00:19:02,230 understanding of the degradation of 481 00:19:09,640 --> 00:19:05,480 biological macromolecules over century x 482 00:19:11,800 --> 00:19:09,650 scales so we're very excited about I can 483 00:19:15,010 --> 00:19:11,810 tell the thing does it have applications 484 00:19:16,230 --> 00:19:15,020 for life on Mars I think it does I mean 485 00:19:19,210 --> 00:19:16,240 of course Mars has a much higher 486 00:19:21,880 --> 00:19:19,220 radiation exposure on the surface but it 487 00:19:23,980 --> 00:19:21,890 might tell us something about life 488 00:19:26,350 --> 00:19:23,990 underground that's desiccated in a 489 00:19:29,320 --> 00:19:26,360 dormant state and and what the processes 490 00:19:31,630 --> 00:19:29,330 are of loss of viability I mean I should 491 00:19:34,690 --> 00:19:31,640 say 500 years it's still a short 492 00:19:37,200 --> 00:19:34,700 experiment crowby align scale 493 00:19:40,630 --> 00:19:37,210 I mean microbes probably can't survive 494 00:19:42,940 --> 00:19:40,640 millennia in permafrost or or completely 495 00:19:45,310 --> 00:19:42,950 desiccated but the purpose of the 496 00:19:47,800 --> 00:19:45,320 experiment was to try and get to time 497 00:19:49,840 --> 00:19:47,810 scales that are more reflective of 498 00:19:53,230 --> 00:19:49,850 microbial timescales than human 499 00:19:54,580 --> 00:19:53,240 timescales that's very cool I like to 500 00:19:57,880 --> 00:19:54,590 change gears a little bit here 501 00:19:59,470 --> 00:19:57,890 um this so you're a professor you're 502 00:20:00,910 --> 00:19:59,480 director of the UK Centre for 503 00:20:01,590 --> 00:20:00,920 astrobiology you do all this amazing 504 00:20:04,590 --> 00:20:01,600 sign 505 00:20:06,630 --> 00:20:04,600 yet you had time to write a book an 506 00:20:09,360 --> 00:20:06,640 astrobiology textbook for that matter 507 00:20:10,980 --> 00:20:09,370 for undergraduates where do I find the 508 00:20:13,310 --> 00:20:10,990 time how do you do it like tell us more 509 00:20:16,890 --> 00:20:13,320 about the process that led to this book 510 00:20:18,450 --> 00:20:16,900 okay well when I went to I went to N for 511 00:20:20,400 --> 00:20:18,460 about five years ago that's when I set 512 00:20:21,960 --> 00:20:20,410 up the center and of course I need to 513 00:20:24,779 --> 00:20:21,970 teach and one of the things I wanted to 514 00:20:27,419 --> 00:20:24,789 teach was astrobiology so after a couple 515 00:20:29,340 --> 00:20:27,429 of years of teaching physics just to get 516 00:20:31,549 --> 00:20:29,350 to know the undergraduates and how the 517 00:20:34,020 --> 00:20:31,559 university works I set up a an 518 00:20:36,750 --> 00:20:34,030 astrobiology course at NREL oops there's 519 00:20:39,060 --> 00:20:36,760 been very popular it attracts students 520 00:20:44,640 --> 00:20:39,070 from 11 different departments across the 521 00:20:47,399 --> 00:20:44,650 university from sciences as part of that 522 00:20:49,440 --> 00:20:47,409 as part of that lecture course I needed 523 00:20:52,080 --> 00:20:49,450 to write lecture notes for my students 524 00:20:53,399 --> 00:20:52,090 to go with the lectures so I wrote on my 525 00:20:54,990 --> 00:20:53,409 lecture notes and at the end of the 526 00:20:57,390 --> 00:20:55,000 first year of teaching I looked at all 527 00:21:00,299 --> 00:20:57,400 my notes and thought hang on this is 50% 528 00:21:02,640 --> 00:21:00,309 of a textbook why don't I just write the 529 00:21:05,159 --> 00:21:02,650 other 50% and then I can publish a 530 00:21:06,690 --> 00:21:05,169 textbook and then and then I won't have 531 00:21:09,000 --> 00:21:06,700 to write lecture notes I can just tell 532 00:21:11,310 --> 00:21:09,010 my students go by the letter by the book 533 00:21:13,380 --> 00:21:11,320 in the bookshop so you know at the end 534 00:21:15,990 --> 00:21:13,390 of the day it is actually a time-saving 535 00:21:18,090 --> 00:21:16,000 with a time-saving move to write a 536 00:21:21,299 --> 00:21:18,100 textbook because it'll be updated by 537 00:21:22,980 --> 00:21:21,309 Wiley hopefully and then it can be used 538 00:21:24,090 --> 00:21:22,990 in other universities but actually 539 00:21:26,010 --> 00:21:24,100 starting model seriously the other 540 00:21:27,390 --> 00:21:26,020 reason for doing it is I thought I've 541 00:21:29,669 --> 00:21:27,400 got all this experience of teaching 542 00:21:31,500 --> 00:21:29,679 astrobiology in a university and I know 543 00:21:34,590 --> 00:21:31,510 now which lectures work and which 544 00:21:36,029 --> 00:21:34,600 material students found exciting it just 545 00:21:37,590 --> 00:21:36,039 seemed like a really good idea to write 546 00:21:39,330 --> 00:21:37,600 a textbook that could be used in other 547 00:21:42,000 --> 00:21:39,340 universities to save other people the 548 00:21:43,440 --> 00:21:42,010 time of having to reinvent astrobiology 549 00:21:45,720 --> 00:21:43,450 courses and figure out all the things 550 00:21:48,000 --> 00:21:45,730 that that I've taken three years to 551 00:21:50,669 --> 00:21:48,010 figure out with what sort of matches to 552 00:21:54,810 --> 00:21:50,679 teethe in mind I should also say that I 553 00:21:57,270 --> 00:21:54,820 wrote 21 um lectures in PowerPoint 554 00:21:58,740 --> 00:21:57,280 slides you can get on the Wiley on the 555 00:22:00,480 --> 00:21:58,750 Wiley website for free 556 00:22:02,730 --> 00:22:00,490 and they go alongside the lecture notes 557 00:22:04,260 --> 00:22:02,740 and they're based on my own lectures so 558 00:22:06,360 --> 00:22:04,270 if anyone out there wants to set up an 559 00:22:10,049 --> 00:22:06,370 astrobiology course at a university you 560 00:22:12,270 --> 00:22:10,059 can download 21 lectures that have 50 561 00:22:13,500 --> 00:22:12,280 minutes worth of powerpoints and then 562 00:22:14,730 --> 00:22:13,510 you use the textbook and you have 563 00:22:16,680 --> 00:22:14,740 instant Astro bar 564 00:22:18,210 --> 00:22:16,690 kourt's so another motive for writing 565 00:22:20,820 --> 00:22:18,220 this textbook to try and encourage 566 00:22:22,470 --> 00:22:20,830 people to set up more astrobiology 567 00:22:24,570 --> 00:22:22,480 courses in universities around the world 568 00:22:26,610 --> 00:22:24,580 and you know as you know the more 569 00:22:28,110 --> 00:22:26,620 astrobiology courses there are the 570 00:22:30,000 --> 00:22:28,120 better for all of us it just means 571 00:22:32,549 --> 00:22:30,010 there's more astrobiologists more 572 00:22:33,960 --> 00:22:32,559 support for astrobiology so in summary 573 00:22:36,450 --> 00:22:33,970 the reason why I did it is because I've 574 00:22:38,280 --> 00:22:36,460 written 50% of a text but already it 575 00:22:41,130 --> 00:22:38,290 seemed like a small step to make a big 576 00:22:43,320 --> 00:22:41,140 impact in improving astrobiology around 577 00:22:45,690 --> 00:22:43,330 the world in universe why I wrote it 578 00:22:48,120 --> 00:22:45,700 it's fun to write I like writing though 579 00:22:50,580 --> 00:22:48,130 you know this was not a chore for me it 580 00:22:52,140 --> 00:22:50,590 was something fun to do good for you 581 00:22:54,470 --> 00:22:52,150 Charles and I read a few chapters and 582 00:22:57,740 --> 00:22:54,480 it's very easy to read in a very 583 00:23:00,419 --> 00:22:57,750 well-designed a textbook so good job and 584 00:23:01,740 --> 00:23:00,429 so before we open it up to the public as 585 00:23:03,060 --> 00:23:01,750 we've been talking for roughly half an 586 00:23:05,520 --> 00:23:03,070 hour have one more thing I'd like to ask 587 00:23:08,010 --> 00:23:05,530 you at the mind you're at now built me 588 00:23:09,780 --> 00:23:08,020 mind you're organizing a course next 589 00:23:11,790 --> 00:23:09,790 year right based on NASA space for bound 590 00:23:14,180 --> 00:23:11,800 yeah could you tell us a bit more when 591 00:23:17,760 --> 00:23:14,190 is it going to be held what it's about 592 00:23:20,130 --> 00:23:17,770 yeah it's in October um it's a 593 00:23:21,780 --> 00:23:20,140 collaboration between the ball be on the 594 00:23:24,180 --> 00:23:21,790 ground science facility here where we're 595 00:23:26,280 --> 00:23:24,190 doing our Stroh biology and NASA space 596 00:23:29,040 --> 00:23:26,290 wood bound and it's to test 597 00:23:32,070 --> 00:23:29,050 instrumentation to do science in a deep 598 00:23:34,620 --> 00:23:32,080 subsurface environment and also to do 599 00:23:36,210 --> 00:23:34,630 education and outreach in the mind a 600 00:23:38,010 --> 00:23:36,220 kilometer underground although people 601 00:23:40,650 --> 00:23:38,020 can also work on the surface and do 602 00:23:42,990 --> 00:23:40,660 outreach activities here we've put out a 603 00:23:46,080 --> 00:23:43,000 general call that you can find on the UK 604 00:23:48,270 --> 00:23:46,090 Center for astrobiology website or you 605 00:23:51,000 --> 00:23:48,280 can contact me directly my emails on my 606 00:23:53,250 --> 00:23:51,010 website and we're inviting anyone with 607 00:23:55,560 --> 00:23:53,260 really good science good technology or 608 00:23:57,630 --> 00:23:55,570 good outreach that involves 609 00:23:59,880 --> 00:23:57,640 understanding life deep on the ground 610 00:24:02,400 --> 00:23:59,890 test these for the subsurface 611 00:24:04,500 --> 00:24:02,410 exploration of the Moon or Mars or just 612 00:24:07,230 --> 00:24:04,510 doing good outreach in astrobiology and 613 00:24:10,049 --> 00:24:07,240 underground science to take part in this 614 00:24:11,520 --> 00:24:10,059 and then what we'll do is we'll look at 615 00:24:14,610 --> 00:24:11,530 all the proposals and come up with a 616 00:24:18,630 --> 00:24:14,620 program so it's a it's October next year 617 00:24:20,160 --> 00:24:18,640 the 9th to the 24th I think I've 618 00:24:21,510 --> 00:24:20,170 completely forgotten the date so think 619 00:24:23,790 --> 00:24:21,520 those are the myth it's midway through 620 00:24:26,430 --> 00:24:23,800 October it's two weeks it's in web feeds 621 00:24:27,840 --> 00:24:26,440 it's not just um in Yorkshire the mine 622 00:24:30,270 --> 00:24:27,850 is just north of Whitby 623 00:24:32,940 --> 00:24:30,280 yeah it's grateful as well fantastic 624 00:24:34,620 --> 00:24:32,950 environment to work with and you will 625 00:24:38,370 --> 00:24:34,630 meet other people working in 626 00:24:40,200 --> 00:24:38,380 astrobiology and and and outreach we 627 00:24:42,240 --> 00:24:40,210 already have JPL involved so they're 628 00:24:44,190 --> 00:24:42,250 going to be here you testing Mars 2020 629 00:24:46,230 --> 00:24:44,200 instruments so it's going to be a really 630 00:24:48,600 --> 00:24:46,240 fantastic our two weeks anyway 631 00:24:50,940 --> 00:24:48,610 interested in in joining us please get 632 00:24:53,190 --> 00:24:50,950 in contact and send our Center it all it 633 00:24:54,990 --> 00:24:53,200 takes is a half page proposal on your 634 00:24:56,970 --> 00:24:55,000 experiments and what you plan to do and 635 00:24:57,750 --> 00:24:56,980 then you can wear one of these very 636 00:25:00,950 --> 00:24:57,760 stylish 637 00:25:03,750 --> 00:25:00,960 orange jumpsuits like I'm wearing now 638 00:25:05,880 --> 00:25:03,760 that's great and as an alumni of two 639 00:25:07,680 --> 00:25:05,890 NASA space program programs I love the 640 00:25:10,500 --> 00:25:07,690 combination of science and art reach 641 00:25:12,030 --> 00:25:10,510 that's just a testament to the program 642 00:25:13,920 --> 00:25:12,040 it's not just science it's not just art 643 00:25:16,080 --> 00:25:13,930 reaches both and both thoroughly which 644 00:25:17,850 --> 00:25:16,090 is awesome so yeah definitely those of 645 00:25:19,380 --> 00:25:17,860 you who are excited about those two 646 00:25:22,140 --> 00:25:19,390 topics science and art which together 647 00:25:24,870 --> 00:25:22,150 really consider charles of space or van 648 00:25:27,090 --> 00:25:24,880 program next October so okay so that's 649 00:25:29,340 --> 00:25:27,100 that run sums up all the questions I had 650 00:25:31,320 --> 00:25:29,350 I am scanning the the Twitter feed right 651 00:25:34,860 --> 00:25:31,330 now under Sagan a chat to see if there 652 00:25:38,910 --> 00:25:34,870 any questions there's one from JP heavy 653 00:25:41,340 --> 00:25:38,920 industries at JP heavy who asks what 654 00:25:46,620 --> 00:25:41,350 would a methane-based ecology look like 655 00:25:48,180 --> 00:25:46,630 on say Titan well that's interesting I 656 00:25:51,240 --> 00:25:48,190 mean Titan it has a bit of a problem 657 00:25:53,580 --> 00:25:51,250 because it's at about 94 Kelvin which is 658 00:25:57,180 --> 00:25:53,590 some way below what we think is the 659 00:25:59,100 --> 00:25:57,190 lower temperature limit for life so you 660 00:26:01,260 --> 00:25:59,110 know certainly there's the raw material 661 00:26:02,910 --> 00:26:01,270 for life there lots of organic materials 662 00:26:04,470 --> 00:26:02,920 complex organic materials and 663 00:26:07,080 --> 00:26:04,480 interesting photo chemical cycles 664 00:26:09,450 --> 00:26:07,090 generating complex organics the sort of 665 00:26:11,010 --> 00:26:09,460 things you might build living things 666 00:26:13,050 --> 00:26:11,020 from although we haven't yet detected 667 00:26:17,340 --> 00:26:13,060 things like amino acids and sugars that 668 00:26:19,410 --> 00:26:17,350 that's yet to be demonstrated but but 669 00:26:21,630 --> 00:26:19,420 real problem is can you have life 670 00:26:23,880 --> 00:26:21,640 working at 94 Kelvin there have been 671 00:26:27,210 --> 00:26:23,890 some interesting ideas about life on 672 00:26:29,190 --> 00:26:27,220 Titan so for example ideas from from 673 00:26:32,730 --> 00:26:29,200 Chris McKay and Heather Smith at NASA 674 00:26:34,500 --> 00:26:32,740 Ames who proposed life using acetylene 675 00:26:36,900 --> 00:26:34,510 and hydrogen as an energy source so 676 00:26:40,770 --> 00:26:36,910 there are molecules as well on Titan 677 00:26:41,970 --> 00:26:40,780 that might be plausible reduction 678 00:26:44,640 --> 00:26:41,980 oxidation reaction 679 00:26:45,539 --> 00:26:44,650 for getting energy but I think still the 680 00:26:48,510 --> 00:26:45,549 problem remains 681 00:26:50,730 --> 00:26:48,520 what's the solvent liquid methane maybe 682 00:26:52,490 --> 00:26:50,740 but liquid methane has some some 683 00:26:54,990 --> 00:26:52,500 disadvantages with respect to doing 684 00:26:56,280 --> 00:26:55,000 dissolving polar substances and doing 685 00:26:58,140 --> 00:26:56,290 the sorts of things that we associate 686 00:27:00,150 --> 00:26:58,150 with biochemistry and I think the real 687 00:27:02,970 --> 00:27:00,160 problem is low temperature I mean okay 688 00:27:05,580 --> 00:27:02,980 you might say maybe life is just working 689 00:27:09,360 --> 00:27:05,590 very very slowly there at literally 690 00:27:11,700 --> 00:27:09,370 glacial timescales and and you know 691 00:27:13,740 --> 00:27:11,710 organisms just divide every few hundred 692 00:27:16,260 --> 00:27:13,750 million years but but it's very 693 00:27:18,060 --> 00:27:16,270 difficult to get it's very difficult to 694 00:27:20,010 --> 00:27:18,070 get reasonable kinetics going at those 695 00:27:24,000 --> 00:27:20,020 temperatures where you can conceive of 696 00:27:25,470 --> 00:27:24,010 an organism that can adapt to changes in 697 00:27:27,450 --> 00:27:25,480 environmental conditions that we 698 00:27:30,180 --> 00:27:27,460 associate even with environments like 699 00:27:32,430 --> 00:27:30,190 Titan Titan is a dynamic world despite 700 00:27:33,810 --> 00:27:32,440 the low temperatures can you have an 701 00:27:36,570 --> 00:27:33,820 organism that can adapt to those changes 702 00:27:37,799 --> 00:27:36,580 quick enough when it's operating at 94 703 00:27:41,130 --> 00:27:37,809 kelvin i think that's an interesting 704 00:27:42,900 --> 00:27:41,140 question to ask yeah it's a bit warmer 705 00:27:45,150 --> 00:27:42,910 underground there is a liquid ocean but 706 00:27:47,039 --> 00:27:45,160 it sits between ice it's not UNTAC tting 707 00:27:49,950 --> 00:27:47,049 was rock so it's I'm still not convinced 708 00:27:51,299 --> 00:27:49,960 oh great ladies your life absolutely 709 00:27:52,860 --> 00:27:51,309 maybe that's what the questioner was 710 00:27:55,440 --> 00:27:52,870 asking so yes I mean if there's a 711 00:27:57,960 --> 00:27:55,450 subsurface ocean that would be another 712 00:28:00,000 --> 00:27:57,970 another question altogether if there's 713 00:28:03,030 --> 00:28:00,010 liquid water even maybe liquid water and 714 00:28:05,280 --> 00:28:03,040 ammonia mixed ocean that might be a more 715 00:28:08,880 --> 00:28:05,290 plausible environment for life than the 716 00:28:12,480 --> 00:28:08,890 near surface environment yeah well I 717 00:28:16,380 --> 00:28:12,490 cream um let's see what else is on the 718 00:28:19,350 --> 00:28:16,390 Twitter feed on a cigarette chat Ben 719 00:28:21,330 --> 00:28:19,360 Pierce asks where will we find the first 720 00:28:24,090 --> 00:28:21,340 evidence of life beyond Earth will it be 721 00:28:27,270 --> 00:28:24,100 Mars Europa ah maybe an exoplanet 722 00:28:29,039 --> 00:28:27,280 oh yeah well this is always you know I 723 00:28:32,190 --> 00:28:29,049 mean my guess is as good as anyone where 724 00:28:35,010 --> 00:28:32,200 do I know where life is but it's an 725 00:28:36,690 --> 00:28:35,020 interesting question because I you know 726 00:28:39,030 --> 00:28:36,700 there is a possibility that we might 727 00:28:41,549 --> 00:28:39,040 find life on an exoplanet before we find 728 00:28:44,340 --> 00:28:41,559 life in our own solar system unless 729 00:28:46,289 --> 00:28:44,350 there's life in Enceladus in Europa 730 00:28:49,650 --> 00:28:46,299 that's being spewed out into space in 731 00:28:52,289 --> 00:28:49,660 clues and that might be relatively easy 732 00:28:54,299 --> 00:28:52,299 to to capture but you know organizing a 733 00:28:55,550 --> 00:28:54,309 sample return mission or a life detects 734 00:28:58,520 --> 00:28:55,560 your mission to Europa 735 00:29:00,920 --> 00:28:58,530 and Enceladus to sample those plumes may 736 00:29:03,560 --> 00:29:00,930 well be a decade or more in the future 737 00:29:05,150 --> 00:29:03,570 um finding evidence for life on Mars 738 00:29:08,180 --> 00:29:05,160 might require drilling into the 739 00:29:10,310 --> 00:29:08,190 subsurface that could be a decade or two 740 00:29:13,250 --> 00:29:10,320 decades ahead to really get good samples 741 00:29:16,160 --> 00:29:13,260 out that unequivocally show light within 742 00:29:18,260 --> 00:29:16,170 that period of a couple of decades it's 743 00:29:21,140 --> 00:29:18,270 not impossible that we might be able to 744 00:29:23,750 --> 00:29:21,150 find a an oxygen bio signature on a on 745 00:29:26,030 --> 00:29:23,760 an exoplanet so I think you know it 746 00:29:27,290 --> 00:29:26,040 would be remarkable in astrobiology if 747 00:29:29,390 --> 00:29:27,300 we actually found evidence of life 748 00:29:31,940 --> 00:29:29,400 beyond our own solar system before we 749 00:29:33,590 --> 00:29:31,950 found like in our own solar system but 750 00:29:35,570 --> 00:29:33,600 who knows I mean we may find we're in a 751 00:29:40,160 --> 00:29:35,580 biological desert and that all 752 00:29:43,040 --> 00:29:40,170 earth-like exoplanets have no life in 753 00:29:45,530 --> 00:29:43,050 which case we're back back to you for 754 00:29:47,960 --> 00:29:45,540 life in our own solar system so my guess 755 00:29:49,310 --> 00:29:47,970 as to where we'll find life is it's no 756 00:29:51,350 --> 00:29:49,320 better than anyone else's guess 757 00:29:53,240 --> 00:29:51,360 I don't know but what's exciting what's 758 00:29:54,710 --> 00:29:53,250 really exciting for astrobiologists is 759 00:29:57,650 --> 00:29:54,720 the discovery of liquid water 760 00:30:01,220 --> 00:29:57,660 environments in our own solar system and 761 00:30:03,530 --> 00:30:01,230 beyond discovery of our super arts that 762 00:30:05,450 --> 00:30:03,540 may be ocean world the discovery of 763 00:30:09,230 --> 00:30:05,460 liquid water coming out of Enceladus 764 00:30:11,480 --> 00:30:09,240 liquid water in Europa extraordinary 765 00:30:13,400 --> 00:30:11,490 evidence for long-lived water bodies and 766 00:30:16,100 --> 00:30:13,410 petechiae sediments on the surface of 767 00:30:18,560 --> 00:30:16,110 Mars incredible images from curiosity of 768 00:30:21,230 --> 00:30:18,570 sedimentary layers all of these things 769 00:30:22,820 --> 00:30:21,240 provide us with the impetus to search 770 00:30:25,310 --> 00:30:22,830 for life regardless of whether we 771 00:30:27,410 --> 00:30:25,320 actually find it or not so we've got the 772 00:30:29,510 --> 00:30:27,420 point I think my summary would be we've 773 00:30:30,700 --> 00:30:29,520 got plenty of places to look for it and 774 00:30:34,370 --> 00:30:30,710 that's the good news 775 00:30:36,380 --> 00:30:34,380 what does your intuition lead you to in 776 00:30:38,900 --> 00:30:36,390 terms of the where in our solar system 777 00:30:42,230 --> 00:30:38,910 you think life is just gut feeling you 778 00:30:44,210 --> 00:30:42,240 know it it's the ocean so it depends 779 00:30:46,910 --> 00:30:44,220 what all my world cup in the morning and 780 00:30:49,160 --> 00:30:46,920 what I ate that day you know I sometimes 781 00:30:51,890 --> 00:30:49,170 I look at pictures of sedimentary as 782 00:30:53,900 --> 00:30:51,900 taken by curiosity in a volcanic 783 00:30:55,970 --> 00:30:53,910 environment that looks so like Iceland 784 00:30:57,980 --> 00:30:55,980 and you just think is it really the case 785 00:31:00,650 --> 00:30:57,990 all of those sediments that curiosity of 786 00:31:02,480 --> 00:31:00,660 study were completely sterile and I find 787 00:31:04,310 --> 00:31:02,490 it difficult to believe that they are 788 00:31:07,280 --> 00:31:04,320 and then another day you know I'll see a 789 00:31:08,830 --> 00:31:07,290 new story about plumes on Enceladus and 790 00:31:12,909 --> 00:31:08,840 I'll just think that's incredible 791 00:31:14,950 --> 00:31:12,919 you have you know large water bodies you 792 00:31:16,630 --> 00:31:14,960 know in the case of Europa that have two 793 00:31:18,519 --> 00:31:16,640 times as much liquid water as the 794 00:31:21,220 --> 00:31:18,529 Earth's oceans combined you think how 795 00:31:22,659 --> 00:31:21,230 can that completely sterile but maybe 796 00:31:24,549 --> 00:31:22,669 these places are I mean it's very 797 00:31:26,529 --> 00:31:24,559 difficult for us on the earth to accept 798 00:31:28,360 --> 00:31:26,539 the idea of large bodies of liquid water 799 00:31:30,549 --> 00:31:28,370 that are habitable but completely 800 00:31:33,460 --> 00:31:30,559 sterile and that's a paradigm that's 801 00:31:35,350 --> 00:31:33,470 very difficult to that's very alien to 802 00:31:37,390 --> 00:31:35,360 ecologist and to most of us as 803 00:31:39,279 --> 00:31:37,400 biologists but it's possible that if the 804 00:31:41,680 --> 00:31:39,289 place has never had an origin of life or 805 00:31:44,380 --> 00:31:41,690 life was never successfully transferred 806 00:31:48,100 --> 00:31:44,390 to them from the earth then they may be 807 00:31:51,130 --> 00:31:48,110 sterile so I don't know I go from 808 00:31:53,019 --> 00:31:51,140 optimism to to less optimism depending 809 00:31:55,419 --> 00:31:53,029 on what I thought about and what papers 810 00:31:56,980 --> 00:31:55,429 I've read but you know that something 811 00:31:58,450 --> 00:31:56,990 would've astrobiology the fact that 812 00:32:01,090 --> 00:31:58,460 there are these incredibly arguments to 813 00:32:03,310 --> 00:32:01,100 have liquid water look like plausible 814 00:32:05,200 --> 00:32:03,320 locations for life are they inhabited or 815 00:32:08,320 --> 00:32:05,210 not you know that's what we all really 816 00:32:09,940 --> 00:32:08,330 want to find out yeah it's really 817 00:32:12,070 --> 00:32:09,950 definitely good for our civilization to 818 00:32:13,539 --> 00:32:12,080 go and find out it I think the answer to 819 00:32:15,610 --> 00:32:13,549 that question will have not only very 820 00:32:17,830 --> 00:32:15,620 profound scientific implications but 821 00:32:20,500 --> 00:32:17,840 also philosophically ones as well that 822 00:32:23,919 --> 00:32:20,510 would be a good for us to think about so 823 00:32:24,669 --> 00:32:23,929 Graham Lau hi Graham has a question this 824 00:32:27,220 --> 00:32:24,679 very good one 825 00:32:28,990 --> 00:32:27,230 so you you taught on the Coursera you've 826 00:32:31,630 --> 00:32:29,000 reached many thousands of people with 827 00:32:32,080 --> 00:32:31,640 your class but his questions is more how 828 00:32:34,779 --> 00:32:32,090 can we 829 00:32:37,659 --> 00:32:34,789 I guess share astrobiology in a more 830 00:32:39,250 --> 00:32:37,669 hands-on manner than just listening to 831 00:32:43,240 --> 00:32:39,260 lectures online what are your thoughts 832 00:32:45,130 --> 00:32:43,250 on that yeah I you know I think that's a 833 00:32:47,860 --> 00:32:45,140 really good question I think there's a 834 00:32:49,779 --> 00:32:47,870 huge amount of potential out there I 835 00:32:52,360 --> 00:32:49,789 mean in some sense there is some out 836 00:32:55,870 --> 00:32:52,370 there like for example the citizen 837 00:32:58,240 --> 00:32:55,880 science exoplanet projects are looking 838 00:33:01,630 --> 00:32:58,250 for exoplanets in in data that's been 839 00:33:04,510 --> 00:33:01,640 sent back by Kepler and being produced 840 00:33:07,230 --> 00:33:04,520 by others there are projects where 841 00:33:09,310 --> 00:33:07,240 there's a possibility of real hands-on 842 00:33:12,820 --> 00:33:09,320 projects I think looking at the Mars 843 00:33:15,490 --> 00:33:12,830 Curiosity images and orbital images is 844 00:33:18,220 --> 00:33:15,500 something that could can be handed over 845 00:33:20,260 --> 00:33:18,230 to citizen science it would be great to 846 00:33:22,480 --> 00:33:20,270 come up with more lab based experiments 847 00:33:25,780 --> 00:33:22,490 there are people currently 848 00:33:29,740 --> 00:33:25,790 trying to build desktop Mars chambers 849 00:33:31,360 --> 00:33:29,750 that you can make by 3d printing I had a 850 00:33:33,430 --> 00:33:31,370 conversation with people who are 851 00:33:36,490 --> 00:33:33,440 building 3d printed Mars simulation 852 00:33:38,980 --> 00:33:36,500 chambers so that I think again with 3d 853 00:33:40,900 --> 00:33:38,990 printing maybe there are planetary 854 00:33:43,419 --> 00:33:40,910 simulation chambers that people can fill 855 00:33:47,080 --> 00:33:43,429 at home and do real astrobiology type 856 00:33:49,060 --> 00:33:47,090 experiments um but but yeah I think his 857 00:33:51,340 --> 00:33:49,070 question is a really good one I think if 858 00:33:53,290 --> 00:33:51,350 anyone out there has ideas for hands-on 859 00:33:56,590 --> 00:33:53,300 astrobiology experiments either through 860 00:33:59,049 --> 00:33:56,600 citizen science type projects or things 861 00:34:00,430 --> 00:33:59,059 that people can buy and do experiments 862 00:34:03,460 --> 00:34:00,440 in their own homes that would be a 863 00:34:05,710 --> 00:34:03,470 fantastic Avenue for increasing the 864 00:34:08,169 --> 00:34:05,720 outreach of astrobiology on a more sort 865 00:34:10,300 --> 00:34:08,179 of popular level but also giving people 866 00:34:13,720 --> 00:34:10,310 who are not professional astrobiologists 867 00:34:15,129 --> 00:34:13,730 do real experiments yes I survive 868 00:34:16,600 --> 00:34:15,139 definitely still a young field that 869 00:34:18,609 --> 00:34:16,610 needs a lot of ideas from the earlier 870 00:34:21,340 --> 00:34:18,619 early career community and how to make 871 00:34:25,119 --> 00:34:21,350 it how to make it grow there's a 872 00:34:26,950 --> 00:34:25,129 question on asteroid mining sorry 873 00:34:28,659 --> 00:34:26,960 there's a question on asteroid mining by 874 00:34:30,940 --> 00:34:28,669 Elizabeth Frank hi Elizabeth 875 00:34:33,550 --> 00:34:30,950 regarding are you the first one to do 876 00:34:35,710 --> 00:34:33,560 microbes on asteroids in terms of bio 877 00:34:37,000 --> 00:34:35,720 mining or is there is an established 878 00:34:40,300 --> 00:34:37,010 literature on that that you're building 879 00:34:42,460 --> 00:34:40,310 on now there's a couple of papers out 880 00:34:44,919 --> 00:34:42,470 there where people have are looked at 881 00:34:48,280 --> 00:34:44,929 microbes growing on meteoritic material 882 00:34:50,889 --> 00:34:48,290 in the lab so there's a couple of papers 883 00:34:53,430 --> 00:34:50,899 by mort nur who did who grew plants 884 00:34:56,050 --> 00:34:53,440 actually as well as microbes on 885 00:34:57,460 --> 00:34:56,060 contracted carbonaceous chondrites so 886 00:34:59,500 --> 00:34:57,470 it's not the first time anyone's looked 887 00:35:01,150 --> 00:34:59,510 at whether things will grow on on on 888 00:35:03,670 --> 00:35:01,160 meteorites and things will grow on 889 00:35:05,140 --> 00:35:03,680 meteorites meteorites are just silicate 890 00:35:07,210 --> 00:35:05,150 rocks and there's plenty of good stuff 891 00:35:09,580 --> 00:35:07,220 in there for things to grow I think ours 892 00:35:12,070 --> 00:35:09,590 is the first experiment that has been 893 00:35:15,310 --> 00:35:12,080 approved for spaceflight certainly the 894 00:35:18,210 --> 00:35:15,320 first experiment proposed for a space 895 00:35:22,390 --> 00:35:18,220 station that these are deliberately folk 896 00:35:24,730 --> 00:35:22,400 might being in the use of microbes to to 897 00:35:27,310 --> 00:35:24,740 break down rocks and play a role in bio 898 00:35:29,380 --> 00:35:27,320 mining and also in other microbial 899 00:35:31,150 --> 00:35:29,390 immediated sort of reactions and and 900 00:35:34,810 --> 00:35:31,160 useful things we can do with regolith 901 00:35:39,790 --> 00:35:37,870 fascinating I have another question from 902 00:35:43,600 --> 00:35:39,800 penny Boston hi penny 903 00:35:45,460 --> 00:35:43,610 she asks so biofilms are so central to 904 00:35:48,520 --> 00:35:45,470 the microbial Way of life here on earth 905 00:35:50,410 --> 00:35:48,530 do you think that a biofilm lifestyle is 906 00:35:54,190 --> 00:35:50,420 going to be a lifestyle chase of 907 00:35:55,810 --> 00:35:54,200 microbes everywhere in a galaxy ha it's 908 00:35:57,460 --> 00:35:55,820 a really good question so hi penny by 909 00:36:00,820 --> 00:35:57,470 the way good really glad you could make 910 00:36:02,320 --> 00:36:00,830 it um yeah I think so as penny knows you 911 00:36:03,880 --> 00:36:02,330 know these things biofilms are 912 00:36:07,060 --> 00:36:03,890 everywhere in extreme environments in 913 00:36:09,610 --> 00:36:07,070 caves and in other situations very few 914 00:36:11,500 --> 00:36:09,620 microbes in the natural world live alone 915 00:36:14,740 --> 00:36:11,510 and we call these things unicellular 916 00:36:17,430 --> 00:36:14,750 micro unicellular organisms but very few 917 00:36:19,780 --> 00:36:17,440 microbes are truly unicellular that's a 918 00:36:21,940 --> 00:36:19,790 generally an artifact of the laboratory 919 00:36:24,190 --> 00:36:21,950 when you go into natural environments 920 00:36:28,300 --> 00:36:24,200 microbes cooperate in a whole variety of 921 00:36:30,820 --> 00:36:28,310 ways either up provokes energy sources 922 00:36:33,370 --> 00:36:30,830 and other microbes will waste they 923 00:36:34,870 --> 00:36:33,380 collaborate in terms of extracting 924 00:36:37,150 --> 00:36:34,880 nutrients from rocks you know one 925 00:36:39,070 --> 00:36:37,160 microbe might excrete an acid that will 926 00:36:41,320 --> 00:36:39,080 break down rocks that helps the whole 927 00:36:43,540 --> 00:36:41,330 community to grow and they cycle 928 00:36:45,460 --> 00:36:43,550 elements as well carbon sulfur nitrogen 929 00:36:47,380 --> 00:36:45,470 and all these elements cycle through 930 00:36:50,770 --> 00:36:47,390 biofilms through different types of 931 00:36:53,590 --> 00:36:50,780 microbes I think on any planet where you 932 00:36:55,480 --> 00:36:53,600 have microbes there has to be a very 933 00:36:58,860 --> 00:36:55,490 strong evolutionary selection pressure 934 00:37:02,020 --> 00:36:58,870 for those microbes to start cooperating 935 00:37:05,410 --> 00:37:02,030 in the Darwinian struggle for survival 936 00:37:07,300 --> 00:37:05,420 in the classical view of that it would 937 00:37:09,100 --> 00:37:07,310 be it's sort of biologically 938 00:37:11,260 --> 00:37:09,110 inconceivable you would have microbes to 939 00:37:12,790 --> 00:37:11,270 sitting on a planetary surface just 940 00:37:15,040 --> 00:37:12,800 doing their own thing completely 941 00:37:17,560 --> 00:37:15,050 separated because somewhere in that 942 00:37:19,840 --> 00:37:17,570 mixture of microbes there's going to be 943 00:37:21,820 --> 00:37:19,850 a selective advantage for two microbes 944 00:37:24,280 --> 00:37:21,830 to work together even as I say if it's 945 00:37:26,410 --> 00:37:24,290 just one microbe using another microbe 946 00:37:29,290 --> 00:37:26,420 waste as an energy source so I think 947 00:37:30,700 --> 00:37:29,300 there has to be a drive towards biofilms 948 00:37:32,350 --> 00:37:30,710 I think on any planet where you had 949 00:37:37,809 --> 00:37:32,360 microbes you would find things growing 950 00:37:40,749 --> 00:37:37,819 in biofilms great question penny thanks 951 00:37:44,499 --> 00:37:40,759 Gramp has another one good question 952 00:37:46,839 --> 00:37:44,509 again go tickle the brain here if you 953 00:37:49,239 --> 00:37:46,849 are allowed to say one sentence on a 954 00:37:51,699 --> 00:37:49,249 future Golden Record that will be sent 955 00:37:53,620 --> 00:37:51,709 to space that kind of summarizes 956 00:37:56,019 --> 00:37:53,630 humanity almost what would you what 957 00:38:00,099 --> 00:37:56,029 would you say or in addition to that 958 00:38:03,039 --> 00:38:00,109 what would you put on that record my 959 00:38:09,160 --> 00:38:03,049 message would be we do good things as 960 00:38:13,239 --> 00:38:09,170 well you know indeed that's a very 961 00:38:15,099 --> 00:38:13,249 cynical reply you know the alien species 962 00:38:17,680 --> 00:38:15,109 was watching what we get up to I think 963 00:38:20,680 --> 00:38:17,690 they would be they would be in despair 964 00:38:22,439 --> 00:38:20,690 you know we do do a lie there's sort of 965 00:38:25,029 --> 00:38:22,449 serious side to that comment 966 00:38:26,859 --> 00:38:25,039 astrobiology the search for life beyond 967 00:38:28,900 --> 00:38:26,869 the earth for me at least is one of the 968 00:38:31,029 --> 00:38:28,910 things that demonstrates the best in our 969 00:38:32,650 --> 00:38:31,039 civilization and I'm not just saying 970 00:38:33,130 --> 00:38:32,660 that because I want funding I really 971 00:38:36,279 --> 00:38:33,140 mean that 972 00:38:37,989 --> 00:38:36,289 um asking the question of are we alone 973 00:38:39,969 --> 00:38:37,999 in the universe I don't know of any 974 00:38:43,449 --> 00:38:39,979 other species on the earth that asks 975 00:38:45,999 --> 00:38:43,459 that planet that ask that question a lot 976 00:38:48,039 --> 00:38:46,009 of species attack each other they do 977 00:38:50,890 --> 00:38:48,049 warfare obviously in a more rudimentary 978 00:38:53,620 --> 00:38:50,900 way than us but a lot of the things that 979 00:38:55,660 --> 00:38:53,630 we do that are bad are products of 980 00:38:57,519 --> 00:38:55,670 animal instinct but asking questions 981 00:39:00,640 --> 00:38:57,529 like what's the what's the universe made 982 00:39:02,920 --> 00:39:00,650 of is there life out there these are 983 00:39:05,099 --> 00:39:02,930 questions that that really define us as 984 00:39:07,269 --> 00:39:05,109 a species that can think as a 985 00:39:09,609 --> 00:39:07,279 civilization that can go beyond purely 986 00:39:11,170 --> 00:39:09,619 animal instincts so I would like to 987 00:39:12,819 --> 00:39:11,180 think that these are things that we 988 00:39:14,769 --> 00:39:12,829 would want to tell other species in the 989 00:39:16,059 --> 00:39:14,779 universe that yeah we have our failings 990 00:39:18,249 --> 00:39:16,069 we have our faults and if you're 991 00:39:20,769 --> 00:39:18,259 observing our planet you probably see 992 00:39:22,479 --> 00:39:20,779 some quite bad stuff going on but we 993 00:39:24,430 --> 00:39:22,489 also think about these higher-level 994 00:39:25,359 --> 00:39:24,440 questions there really is hope for our 995 00:39:27,969 --> 00:39:25,369 civilzation 996 00:39:31,150 --> 00:39:27,979 to break beyond violence and destruction 997 00:39:33,640 --> 00:39:31,160 and and to to move out into the universe 998 00:39:35,650 --> 00:39:33,650 and and contribute in a very positive 999 00:39:38,769 --> 00:39:35,660 way if there are other species out there 1000 00:39:41,380 --> 00:39:38,779 so that that would be my message to to 1001 00:39:43,509 --> 00:39:41,390 other species and and maybe they would 1002 00:39:45,609 --> 00:39:43,519 recognize that you know if they come if 1003 00:39:47,289 --> 00:39:45,619 they are species at the end of a food 1004 00:39:50,250 --> 00:39:47,299 chain maybe they are understand 1005 00:39:54,180 --> 00:39:50,260 aggression as an evolutionary product 1006 00:39:56,160 --> 00:39:54,190 and I like the rule or what we actually 1007 00:39:57,870 --> 00:39:56,170 do good stuff as well they might 1008 00:39:59,910 --> 00:39:57,880 actually understand that and understand 1009 00:40:02,640 --> 00:39:59,920 the conflict in ourselves in our 1010 00:40:04,099 --> 00:40:02,650 civilization and the work that we have 1011 00:40:06,450 --> 00:40:04,109 to do to try and reach beyond 1012 00:40:09,270 --> 00:40:06,460 destruction to the positive side of our 1013 00:40:12,870 --> 00:40:09,280 own natures I think all intelligent 1014 00:40:14,340 --> 00:40:12,880 species have that conflict there's some 1015 00:40:17,340 --> 00:40:14,350 beautiful world Charles you get that 1016 00:40:19,740 --> 00:40:17,350 Graham yeah I agree with you that 1017 00:40:21,540 --> 00:40:19,750 astrobiology is a very unifying as a 1018 00:40:23,460 --> 00:40:21,550 discipline because you know looking up 1019 00:40:24,960 --> 00:40:23,470 at the stars and wondering what's out 1020 00:40:28,230 --> 00:40:24,970 there is definitely not something that's 1021 00:40:30,810 --> 00:40:28,240 limited to individuals you know pockets 1022 00:40:32,340 --> 00:40:30,820 on the earth everybody has done that and 1023 00:40:33,810 --> 00:40:32,350 it's it makes for wonderful 1024 00:40:36,000 --> 00:40:33,820 conversations and the fact that we can 1025 00:40:37,740 --> 00:40:36,010 tackle that scientifically in this early 1026 00:40:39,870 --> 00:40:37,750 21st century is an awesome time to be 1027 00:40:41,790 --> 00:40:39,880 alive 1028 00:40:43,890 --> 00:40:41,800 so astrobiology is a fairly young field 1029 00:40:45,570 --> 00:40:43,900 as you know um what do you think are the 1030 00:40:47,700 --> 00:40:45,580 challenges going to face in the future 1031 00:40:49,380 --> 00:40:47,710 like there's no yet Department of 1032 00:40:51,420 --> 00:40:49,390 astrobiology and personally I think 1033 00:40:53,690 --> 00:40:51,430 that's probably a good thing but how do 1034 00:40:57,690 --> 00:40:53,700 you see the field evolving and and 1035 00:41:01,380 --> 00:40:57,700 maturing I guess yeah I mean I'm not the 1036 00:41:03,690 --> 00:41:01,390 first one is really that one of Astra 1037 00:41:07,170 --> 00:41:03,700 body's biggest challenges is that it's 1038 00:41:10,530 --> 00:41:07,180 so broad it's difficult to condense it 1039 00:41:12,450 --> 00:41:10,540 into a single field when you can put up 1040 00:41:14,970 --> 00:41:12,460 a building and say that the Department 1041 00:41:17,370 --> 00:41:14,980 of XYZ it's a lot easier to get funding 1042 00:41:19,620 --> 00:41:17,380 because people can put you in a in a 1043 00:41:22,320 --> 00:41:19,630 pigeonhole and they can understand what 1044 00:41:24,060 --> 00:41:22,330 you're trying to do um astrobiology is 1045 00:41:26,430 --> 00:41:24,070 so broad it's sometimes difficult for 1046 00:41:27,990 --> 00:41:26,440 people to understand what we're really 1047 00:41:29,790 --> 00:41:28,000 doing because we ask these very broad 1048 00:41:31,859 --> 00:41:29,800 questions but that's also its strength 1049 00:41:34,140 --> 00:41:31,869 that's one of the most exciting things 1050 00:41:36,630 --> 00:41:34,150 about astrobiology is it cuts across 1051 00:41:39,060 --> 00:41:36,640 disciplinary boundaries and that's where 1052 00:41:40,980 --> 00:41:39,070 some of the most exciting science is so 1053 00:41:43,020 --> 00:41:40,990 it's challenge I think ahead and this is 1054 00:41:45,510 --> 00:41:43,030 a challenge I see at Edinboro nets 1055 00:41:48,060 --> 00:41:45,520 I don't think a unique challenge it is 1056 00:41:51,240 --> 00:41:48,070 is trying to consolidate around 1057 00:41:53,220 --> 00:41:51,250 particular questions in my case any of 1058 00:41:56,070 --> 00:41:53,230 life in extremes other people have other 1059 00:41:57,930 --> 00:41:56,080 questions in astrobiology but to try and 1060 00:42:00,300 --> 00:41:57,940 keep that momentum going and creating 1061 00:42:03,540 --> 00:42:00,310 new jobs our new funding that can 1062 00:42:05,100 --> 00:42:03,550 sustain a new generation um 1063 00:42:07,830 --> 00:42:05,110 really sad thing to see is lots of 1064 00:42:09,960 --> 00:42:07,840 people coming up in astral and not 1065 00:42:11,730 --> 00:42:09,970 sufficient jobs to give them permanent 1066 00:42:13,650 --> 00:42:11,740 positions in universities I mean that's 1067 00:42:15,210 --> 00:42:13,660 not just that's not just unique to 1068 00:42:18,210 --> 00:42:15,220 astrobiology it's true of a lot of 1069 00:42:19,740 --> 00:42:18,220 science but but in astrobiology we also 1070 00:42:22,830 --> 00:42:19,750 have to confront that challenge of 1071 00:42:26,550 --> 00:42:22,840 trying to keep the momentum of the field 1072 00:42:28,980 --> 00:42:26,560 going um I would say to anyone listening 1073 00:42:31,170 --> 00:42:28,990 who's an early career researcher don't 1074 00:42:34,130 --> 00:42:31,180 forget astrobiology if you go into a 1075 00:42:36,390 --> 00:42:34,140 university and get a conventional 1076 00:42:39,060 --> 00:42:36,400 conventional job in something like 1077 00:42:41,040 --> 00:42:39,070 microbiology and astronomy do really 1078 00:42:44,490 --> 00:42:41,050 make an effort to set up astrobiology 1079 00:42:47,070 --> 00:42:44,500 under graduate undergraduate lecture 1080 00:42:49,980 --> 00:42:47,080 courses they're incredibly popular 1081 00:42:52,170 --> 00:42:49,990 amongst students but what that also does 1082 00:42:54,090 --> 00:42:52,180 is it will it will keep momentum and 1083 00:42:55,920 --> 00:42:54,100 critical mass in astrobiology going 1084 00:42:57,780 --> 00:42:55,930 globally by keeping it healthy in 1085 00:42:59,490 --> 00:42:57,790 universities so I think that's a really 1086 00:43:01,530 --> 00:42:59,500 important way of addressing the 1087 00:43:03,780 --> 00:43:01,540 challenge of critical mass and 1088 00:43:06,480 --> 00:43:03,790 sustainability keep that excitement and 1089 00:43:10,020 --> 00:43:06,490 those courses going in in academic 1090 00:43:11,700 --> 00:43:10,030 institutions yeah and here I have to do 1091 00:43:13,590 --> 00:43:11,710 a little parent assist and commend an 1092 00:43:15,060 --> 00:43:13,600 SSO velji program and Institute for 1093 00:43:17,010 --> 00:43:15,070 really being supportive of the early 1094 00:43:19,560 --> 00:43:17,020 career Network especially so the era 1095 00:43:22,260 --> 00:43:19,570 conference AB grad con which is has been 1096 00:43:25,860 --> 00:43:22,270 formative for me and I know for others 1097 00:43:31,530 --> 00:43:25,870 and let's see any other questions do I 1098 00:43:33,180 --> 00:43:31,540 see online there's one by Indra and I 1099 00:43:34,950 --> 00:43:33,190 think you've tackled this one already a 1100 00:43:39,170 --> 00:43:34,960 little bit she was asking like if 1101 00:43:42,270 --> 00:43:39,180 contact was made by was made with et 1102 00:43:44,280 --> 00:43:42,280 what kind of scientists would be the 1103 00:43:45,840 --> 00:43:44,290 ones making a contact but I think 1104 00:43:47,790 --> 00:43:45,850 astrobiologists are the ones we're going 1105 00:43:49,950 --> 00:43:47,800 to make that contact whether it's 1106 00:43:52,140 --> 00:43:49,960 geologist or biologist or astronomers 1107 00:43:55,200 --> 00:43:52,150 depends where we find that life but what 1108 00:43:56,670 --> 00:43:55,210 are your thoughts yeah no I agree you 1109 00:43:58,680 --> 00:43:56,680 know that's what I scribble Hajis for 1110 00:44:01,770 --> 00:43:58,690 one of the things that's one of the 1111 00:44:03,570 --> 00:44:01,780 things we're supposed to do is is be 1112 00:44:06,060 --> 00:44:03,580 that connection if that ever happened of 1113 00:44:07,800 --> 00:44:06,070 course you know that's a very optimistic 1114 00:44:10,050 --> 00:44:07,810 thing to happen in the field 1115 00:44:11,730 --> 00:44:10,060 we'll be very happy if we find microbes 1116 00:44:14,040 --> 00:44:11,740 on another planet that'll give us plenty 1117 00:44:15,810 --> 00:44:14,050 of work to do but but yes I mean 1118 00:44:16,860 --> 00:44:15,820 thinking hypothetically if we made 1119 00:44:23,550 --> 00:44:16,870 contact with 1120 00:44:25,680 --> 00:44:23,560 intelligent an intelligent and that I 1121 00:44:27,630 --> 00:44:25,690 think that astrobiologists would play 1122 00:44:28,260 --> 00:44:27,640 that role because astrobiologists bring 1123 00:44:32,250 --> 00:44:28,270 together 1124 00:44:35,160 --> 00:44:32,260 astronomers geoscientists ephesus are 1125 00:44:36,690 --> 00:44:35,170 all under one one subject so so the 1126 00:44:38,820 --> 00:44:36,700 astrobiology community would be the 1127 00:44:40,680 --> 00:44:38,830 obvious communities to try and find the 1128 00:44:44,010 --> 00:44:40,690 particular expertise that was needed at 1129 00:44:45,930 --> 00:44:44,020 the time whether that's reproducing a 1130 00:44:48,000 --> 00:44:45,940 signal that might need astronomers with 1131 00:44:51,510 --> 00:44:48,010 instruments whether that's deciding on 1132 00:44:53,250 --> 00:44:51,520 the ethical implications or if it was a 1133 00:44:56,640 --> 00:44:53,260 contact that actually happened for real 1134 00:44:58,170 --> 00:44:56,650 you know being actually landed on the 1135 00:44:59,910 --> 00:44:58,180 earth and you need some biologists and 1136 00:45:02,910 --> 00:44:59,920 biochemists to figure out what's going 1137 00:45:05,880 --> 00:45:02,920 on so yep whatever the situation is 1138 00:45:07,950 --> 00:45:05,890 astrobiology I think probably has the 1139 00:45:10,260 --> 00:45:07,960 widest diversity of expertise that could 1140 00:45:13,470 --> 00:45:10,270 be brought to bear on that challenge of 1141 00:45:15,870 --> 00:45:13,480 dealing with that situation agreed 1142 00:45:18,420 --> 00:45:15,880 there's a great question by Julia hi 1143 00:45:20,940 --> 00:45:18,430 Julia who is asking about phosphorus so 1144 00:45:22,620 --> 00:45:20,950 as you know phosphorus is a key key 1145 00:45:24,840 --> 00:45:22,630 element for life on Earth but how would 1146 00:45:28,220 --> 00:45:24,850 we get it how would we find that on on 1147 00:45:33,030 --> 00:45:28,230 the moons in the outer solar system 1148 00:45:35,850 --> 00:45:33,040 yeah well the phosphorus detectors this 1149 00:45:37,740 --> 00:45:35,860 is not really my my expertise but there 1150 00:45:41,220 --> 00:45:37,750 are electrochemical methods of detecting 1151 00:45:44,100 --> 00:45:41,230 phosphorus in in liquids or or in rocks 1152 00:45:48,900 --> 00:45:44,110 you can also look at particular minerals 1153 00:45:50,850 --> 00:45:48,910 for example using XRD and an XRF are two 1154 00:45:53,610 --> 00:45:50,860 methods x-ray fluorescence an x-ray 1155 00:45:56,430 --> 00:45:53,620 x-ray diffraction and so x-ray x-ray of 1156 00:45:58,890 --> 00:45:56,440 fluorescence will give you the elemental 1157 00:46:00,630 --> 00:45:58,900 composition of rocks and that's used to 1158 00:46:02,660 --> 00:46:00,640 find phosphorous for example on Mars 1159 00:46:07,110 --> 00:46:02,670 it's been demonstrated in Martian rocks 1160 00:46:09,180 --> 00:46:07,120 x-ray diffraction gives you information 1161 00:46:11,550 --> 00:46:09,190 on particular minerals so you could find 1162 00:46:13,950 --> 00:46:11,560 things like apatite which is a phosphate 1163 00:46:16,620 --> 00:46:13,960 mineral if you're looking in liquids 1164 00:46:18,390 --> 00:46:16,630 like the plumes of Enceladus then you 1165 00:46:21,200 --> 00:46:18,400 might want some electrode that will 1166 00:46:24,690 --> 00:46:21,210 detect our phosphorus or phosphate 1167 00:46:27,060 --> 00:46:24,700 compounds in in different oxidation 1168 00:46:29,250 --> 00:46:27,070 states of phosphorus rather in liquids 1169 00:46:30,090 --> 00:46:29,260 so there are enormous number of chemical 1170 00:46:32,640 --> 00:46:30,100 and 1171 00:46:34,560 --> 00:46:32,650 x-ray mineralogical methods of detecting 1172 00:46:37,230 --> 00:46:34,570 phosphorus in different states in liquid 1173 00:46:40,170 --> 00:46:37,240 and rocks that that will be used in 1174 00:46:42,450 --> 00:46:40,180 future planet Americans are used on the 1175 00:46:44,070 --> 00:46:42,460 surface of Mars to detect phosphate 1176 00:46:45,900 --> 00:46:44,080 containing rocks but that's a good 1177 00:46:47,790 --> 00:46:45,910 question because actually rightly points 1178 00:46:50,610 --> 00:46:47,800 out phosphorus is one of the two knobs 1179 00:46:52,320 --> 00:46:50,620 elements and at least the life on Earth 1180 00:46:57,090 --> 00:46:52,330 is an essential ingredient of things 1181 00:47:00,600 --> 00:46:57,100 like nucleic acids other other molecules 1182 00:47:02,880 --> 00:47:00,610 such as adenosine triphosphate and parts 1183 00:47:06,390 --> 00:47:02,890 of enzymes as well so so looking for 1184 00:47:09,840 --> 00:47:06,400 phosphorus is a key part of biochemistry 1185 00:47:11,370 --> 00:47:09,850 of astrobiology and so we're getting 1186 00:47:13,410 --> 00:47:11,380 close on time so we have time for one 1187 00:47:15,990 --> 00:47:13,420 more question and I see grams one up 1188 00:47:17,100 --> 00:47:16,000 there on on bio minerals so you kind of 1189 00:47:19,890 --> 00:47:17,110 talked about a little bit about 1190 00:47:21,390 --> 00:47:19,900 detecting bio minerals on on other 1191 00:47:22,980 --> 00:47:21,400 worlds what are your favorite 1192 00:47:26,430 --> 00:47:22,990 instruments but what would you like to 1193 00:47:28,050 --> 00:47:26,440 see on honor on a Mars rover okay so now 1194 00:47:30,900 --> 00:47:28,060 I'm going to be I'm going to be flippant 1195 00:47:35,370 --> 00:47:30,910 again my favorite instrument is a human 1196 00:47:37,230 --> 00:47:35,380 being um oh yeah I mean I really again 1197 00:47:39,030 --> 00:47:37,240 you know I'm so laughing but I there's a 1198 00:47:41,610 --> 00:47:39,040 serious side to it as well very very 1199 00:47:43,260 --> 00:47:41,620 difficult to detect truly iron minerals 1200 00:47:45,840 --> 00:47:43,270 even on the earth when you find minerals 1201 00:47:48,150 --> 00:47:45,850 in in extreme environments you have to 1202 00:47:50,760 --> 00:47:48,160 do a lot of Dentistry whether they have 1203 00:47:53,430 --> 00:47:50,770 been produced by biology or whether they 1204 00:47:56,190 --> 00:47:53,440 are the product of abiotic chemical 1205 00:47:57,870 --> 00:47:56,200 reactions and the way around that is to 1206 00:47:59,340 --> 00:47:57,880 look at the structure of the minerals to 1207 00:48:01,500 --> 00:47:59,350 see whether they're associated with 1208 00:48:04,620 --> 00:48:01,510 microfossils whether they contain 1209 00:48:08,010 --> 00:48:04,630 isotopic signatures of life maybe carbon 1210 00:48:09,930 --> 00:48:08,020 fractionation negative Delta c-13 values 1211 00:48:11,640 --> 00:48:09,940 of that sort of thing that might tell 1212 00:48:14,120 --> 00:48:11,650 you that biology has been involved in 1213 00:48:16,880 --> 00:48:14,130 their formation whether that things like 1214 00:48:21,000 --> 00:48:16,890 carbonates different iron minerals um 1215 00:48:23,250 --> 00:48:21,010 ultimately to produce a suite of 1216 00:48:26,040 --> 00:48:23,260 minerals on a rover that will truly 1217 00:48:27,600 --> 00:48:26,050 detect a bio mineral and say that's life 1218 00:48:29,400 --> 00:48:27,610 is a very very difficult thing to do 1219 00:48:30,810 --> 00:48:29,410 it's difficult on earth it's difficult 1220 00:48:34,440 --> 00:48:30,820 when you're trying to put it on a robot 1221 00:48:36,630 --> 00:48:34,450 so I am a true supporter of of sending 1222 00:48:38,970 --> 00:48:36,640 humans to places like Mars with a 1223 00:48:41,280 --> 00:48:38,980 laboratory and time on their hands a 1224 00:48:43,710 --> 00:48:41,290 good year or so on the surface to do 1225 00:48:45,330 --> 00:48:43,720 science are to use sophisticated 1226 00:48:47,400 --> 00:48:45,340 instruments to be able to go back into 1227 00:48:51,330 --> 00:48:47,410 the field and collect samples in a 1228 00:48:53,400 --> 00:48:51,340 real-time way and you know unless we 1229 00:48:56,700 --> 00:48:53,410 stumble across something on Mars using a 1230 00:48:58,349 --> 00:48:56,710 robo that's unequivocal the best way at 1231 00:49:01,410 --> 00:48:58,359 least to look at the possibility of 1232 00:49:03,089 --> 00:49:01,420 biology on Mars over large areas even if 1233 00:49:05,940 --> 00:49:03,099 we find life on Mars look at the spatial 1234 00:49:08,700 --> 00:49:05,950 distribution of fire minerals and life 1235 00:49:11,040 --> 00:49:08,710 on Mars is to send human explorers there 1236 00:49:13,050 --> 00:49:11,050 in the long term and as I say even if we 1237 00:49:16,260 --> 00:49:13,060 did find evidence of life using a rover 1238 00:49:18,240 --> 00:49:16,270 bio mineral you still can't beat having 1239 00:49:19,589 --> 00:49:18,250 a human there for a year and a lab going 1240 00:49:21,720 --> 00:49:19,599 out and collecting a vast number of 1241 00:49:23,339 --> 00:49:21,730 samples and looking at spatial 1242 00:49:26,640 --> 00:49:23,349 distribution looking at different types 1243 00:49:28,560 --> 00:49:26,650 of minerals collecting fresh samples 1244 00:49:30,870 --> 00:49:28,570 based on samples they've looked at say 1245 00:49:32,670 --> 00:49:30,880 the day before or the week before so I 1246 00:49:34,890 --> 00:49:32,680 am a fan of the human exploration of 1247 00:49:38,040 --> 00:49:34,900 Mars of course that's not eat so easy to 1248 00:49:40,410 --> 00:49:38,050 are to implement for places like Europa 1249 00:49:42,390 --> 00:49:40,420 with extreme radiation or Enceladus so 1250 00:49:43,890 --> 00:49:42,400 for those sorts of environments if we 1251 00:49:46,470 --> 00:49:43,900 want to look for minerals that have 1252 00:49:48,839 --> 00:49:46,480 interacted with biology are we at least 1253 00:49:51,839 --> 00:49:48,849 for the near term we're limited to two 1254 00:49:53,520 --> 00:49:51,849 robotic missions I think if we do find 1255 00:49:55,079 --> 00:49:53,530 microbes also there'll be another big 1256 00:49:56,970 --> 00:49:55,089 conversation about whether or not it's 1257 00:49:59,190 --> 00:49:56,980 Earth contaminants before we can make 1258 00:50:01,650 --> 00:49:59,200 the claim that if that's it's Exeter sto 1259 00:50:03,810 --> 00:50:01,660 Charles this has been absolutely 1260 00:50:05,910 --> 00:50:03,820 delightful thank you so much for taking 1261 00:50:08,640 --> 00:50:05,920 the time in your fantastic orange 1262 00:50:11,250 --> 00:50:08,650 jumpsuit chatting with us today about 1263 00:50:13,920 --> 00:50:11,260 your career and your words of wisdom on 1264 00:50:17,370 --> 00:50:13,930 astrobiology any last words of wisdom 1265 00:50:19,170 --> 00:50:17,380 you want to share no I just want to say 1266 00:50:20,520 --> 00:50:19,180 thank you for inviting me to take 1267 00:50:23,730 --> 00:50:20,530 partners has been a pleasure as usual 1268 00:50:25,380 --> 00:50:23,740 and you know my only last comment is to 1269 00:50:28,079 --> 00:50:25,390 everyone out there ticket early career 1270 00:50:29,670 --> 00:50:28,089 researchers I'll stick with astrobiology 1271 00:50:31,260 --> 00:50:29,680 it's an incredibly exciting field 1272 00:50:32,880 --> 00:50:31,270 there's a lot of great stuff that's 1273 00:50:35,820 --> 00:50:32,890 going to happen over the coming decades 1274 00:50:37,320 --> 00:50:35,830 and it you know wherever you end up in 1275 00:50:39,480 --> 00:50:37,330 whatever type of scientific career 1276 00:50:41,550 --> 00:50:39,490 remain amongst the astrobiology 1277 00:50:44,550 --> 00:50:41,560 community because it's a great field to 1278 00:50:46,920 --> 00:50:44,560 be in and I encourage you to to keep 1279 00:50:49,200 --> 00:50:46,930 involved and keep contributing and 1280 00:50:51,390 --> 00:50:49,210 thanks a lot again for inviting me in 1281 00:50:53,760 --> 00:50:51,400 grey arts channels thank you so 1282 00:50:55,800 --> 00:50:53,770 listeners join us next month for ask an 1283 00:50:57,550 --> 00:50:55,810 astrobiologist our guest will be dr.